نویسنده: کریم پورریحان، مجید ؛ بیگی، اعظم ؛
نویسنده مسئول: مشهدی، ناصر ؛
جغرافیا و برنامه ریزی محیطی پاییز 1400 - شماره 83 رتبه ب (وزارت علوم/ISC (20 صفحه - از 47 تا 66 )
پوستههای تبخیری خاک که از انواع فرایندهای فیزیکی، شیمیایی و بیولوژیکی تشکیل شدهاند، در تثبیت خاک در مناطق نیمهخشک و خشک نقش مهمی دارند. پایداری و یکپارچگی این پوستهها با فعالیتهای انسانی مانند تردد دام یا ماشین یا استخراج مواد معدنی به خطر میافتد. هدف پژوهش حاضر، بررسی اثر استخراج سولفات سدیم و تخریب پوستة تبخیری بر رفتار حفاظتی سطح زمین است. این پژوهش در منطقة ایوانکی انجام شد. در این راستا چهار نمونه از خاک (دو نمونه شاهد بهعنوان اراضی طبیعی با پوستههای دستنخورده و دو نمونه از محل استخراج و برداشت سولفات سدیم بهعنوان پوستههای تخریبشده در سه افق) بررسی و آزمایش دانهبندی شد. نتایج این پژوهش نشان داد پوستههای دستنخورده حاوی بیش از 60 درصد ذرات بزرگتر از 2000 میکرون هستند. درنتیجه این خاکها دربرابر فرسایش بادی آسیبپذیر نیستند؛ در حالی که درصد این ذرات در پوستههای بههمریخته به کمتر از 40 میرسد که بهطور چشمگیری مقاومت برشی آنها را کاهش میدهد؛ از طرفی ازدستدادن این پوسته ضمن کاهش عمل حفاظتکنندگی پوسته، رسوبات ریزدانة زیر سطحی را در معرض فرسایش بادی قرار میدهد که حاوی بیش از 70 درصد ذرات آسیبپذیرند. نتایج نشان داد برداشت و استخراج سولفات سدیم در منطقه باعث فرسایش باد حدود 5 برابر بیشتر از زمان حفظ خاک با پوسته میشود.
Extended abstractIntroductionLowlands, playas, and downstream portions of rivers in desert areas contain vast reserves of fine-grained sediments, such as silt and clay, as well as soluble materials including a variety of salts. Surfaces created by the combination of these materials can become periodically susceptible to wind erosion. Thus,they are considered to be major dust sources on a global scale.Depending on the spatio-temperial distribution and composition of salts and fine materials, some proportions of these areas areusually either covered by an evaporite salt crust or disperedsoil.Crust is a relatively thin consolidated soil surface layer or seal that is more compact and cohesive than the material immediately below it. When crusts are formed, particles are bound together and become less susceptible to abrasion by blowing soils compared tothe less stable material below the crust. Both crusted surfaces and dispersed soils are morphologically and geochemically dynamic and can respond rapidly to changes in the local environmental conditions.These changes can be natural, such as the frequencies of surfacedrying and flooding by rainwater or the changing groundwater levels, or can be the result ofanthroponic activitiesproviding salt resources for economic use.Over time, the continued operations of both mechanical and chemical processes on lowland surfaces ultimately lead to the decay of salt crust integrity.Crusts usually provide a protectionagainstan underlying ‘fluffy’ layer of sedimentsrepresentingas salty sediments of dust-size fractions with notably low bulk densities.Wind erosion activity occurs particularly when the crust is disturbed or broken by different activities, such as salt extraction or vehicular traffic flow.In all desert areas of Iransodium sulphate (Na2SO4) salts are deposited based on humidityand temperatureconditions, as well as groundwater levels and degrees of salt solubility (concentration). These areas usually occur between downstream of covered pediments and upstream of playas.Traditionally, these areas arevalued forsodium sulphate salt extraction,whichcontributes to the economy of the local population in several ways.The study area was the lowland area of Ivanki, which was one of the areas undergoing wide sodium sulfate extraction. According to the residents, this area providedsand sources forwind erosion and air pollution.It was often a source of emission made by the existingmaterials not only because of wind erosion, but also due tosodium sulfate extraction.This paper investigated the effect of sodium sulfate extraction on creating or exacerbating wind erosion through a collection of sediment samples taken at the sodium sulfate extraction site and their grain-size testing.MethodologyThe sodium sulfate extraction sites were identified based on local information and interpretation of satellite images. The areawas located in the southwest of Eyvankey City between covered pediments and internetworks of playa.It occupied an area of approximately 5000 ha. The sampling points were identified based on geological and geomorphological studies.SThe sampling wascarried out at the summer season. 4Four sites were considered for sampling;two sites asthe control sites and two sites forsodium sulfate extraction. In the control sites, only one sample was taken from the topsoil (natural land) without manipulation and extraction, whilethe samples in the other two sites were taken from 3horizons: a) soil samples fromthe degraded surfaces; b) samplesoriginated fromthe extraction horizon; and c) samples from the lower layers (without manipulation and extraction).Thus, 8 samples were totally collected.The obtained samples were granulated by the common dry-sieving method.Granulometric statistical analysis wasdone for each sample by using GRADISTAT software. DiscussionAccording to the ambrothermic diagram, drought conditions prevailed in the region for about 7 months of the year. This drought couldthe aggravating wind erosionparameters, such as soil moisture and vegetation cover. The warm period corresponded to the warm seasons (spring and summer).Anemometer measurements showed that the study area was affected by erosive and strong winds blowing from the north, northwest, and east.Land cover studies revealedthat more than 60% of the soil surface in the control samples was preserved by the crust with particles larger than 2000 microns. However, after crust destruction for sodium sulfateextraction, the effect of crust cover was less than 45%. In other words, the soil surface lost 25% resistance to wind erosion.In the process of sodium sulfate extraction, the soil under the crust, which contained soil particles, along with a significant amount of powdered sodium sulfate particles, was exposed to wind erosion.Our studyshowed that the frequency percentage of vulnerable particles changedfrom about 10% in the surface layer in the control samples to about 50% in the middle and lower layers of the extracted areas. This meant that the region was about 5 times more sensitive to wind erosion.Studies on the statistical parameters of the samples demonstratedthat the average particle diameters significantly and regularly changed from very coarse sands (surface layers of the control samples or natural lands) to coarse sands (degraded surface layers),fine sands (middle layers), and finally very fine sands (bottom layers), which indicatedincreasedsensitivity to the wind erosion process from the surface layer (crust) to the bottom layer. ConclusionIn this research, field observations, mechanical analysis of soil particle granulation, and investigation of wind characteristics showed that a very high potential ofdust emission from degraded crusts triggered by open extraction. Spatial changes and displacement of removal areas caused bysodium sulfate reduction duringthe extraction periodled tofurther environmental destruction and wind erosion intensification. The results revealeda significant complexity in the relationships ofthe flux of dust emitted from thecrust degraded by sodium sulfate extraction and natural surface crust withthe threshold wind speed required for wind erosion, which suggests furtherresearch to be conducted in this regard in the future. Keywords:sodium sulphate, wind erosion, evaporative crust, granulometry, soil conservation References:- Anderson J. R. (2004). Sieve analysis lab exercise. University of Georgia.- Alcantara Carrio, J. & Alonso Bilbao, I. (2001). Aeolian sediment availability in coastal areas defined from sedimentary parameters. Application to a case study in Fuerteventura. Scientia Marina.- Arnold, A. & Zehnder, K. (1990). Salt weathering on monuments. In The conservation of monuments in the Mediterranean Basin: the influence of coastal environment and salt spray on limestone and marble. Proceedings of the 1st International Symposium, Bari, 7-10 June 1989= La conservazione dei monumenti nel bacino Mediterraneo: Influenza dell ambiente costiero e dello spray marino sulla pietra calcareo e sul marmo. Atti del 1 Simposio internazionale, Bari, 7-10 giugno 1989 (pp. 31-58).- Asmarhansyah, A., Badayos, R. B., Sanchez, P. B., Cruz, P. C. S., & Florece, L. M. (2017). Land suitability evaluation of abandoned tin-mining areas for agricultural development in Bangka Island, Indonesia. Journal of Degraded and Mining Lands Management, 4(4), 907.- Baddock, M. C., Zobeck, T. M., Van Pelt, R. S., & Fredrickson, E. L. (2011). Dust emissions from undisturbed and disturbed, crusted playa surfaces: Cattle trampling effects. Aeolian Research, 3(1), 31-41.- Bagnold, R. A. (2012). The physics of blown sand and desert dunes. Courier Corporation.- Blott, S. J., & Pye, K. (2001). GRADISTAT: a grain size distribution and statistics package for the analysis of unconsolidated sediments. Earth surface processes and Landforms, 26(11), 1237-1248.- Brotons, J. M., Diaz, A. R., Sarria, F. A., & Serrato, F. B. (2010). Wind erosion on mining waste in southeast Spain. Land Degradation & Development, 21(2), 196-209.- Chatterji, S. & Jensen, A. D. (1989). Efflorescence and breakdown of building materials. Nordic Concrete Research, (8), 56-61.- Folk, R.L. & Ward, W. C. (1957). Brazos river bar: a study of the significance of grain size parameters. Journal of sedimentary petrology, 27; 3-26.- Flatt, R. J. & Scherer, G. W. (2002). Hydration and crystallization pressure of sodium sulfate: a critical review. MRS Online Proceedings Library Archive, 712.- Franks, D. M., Brereton, D., & Moran, C. J. (2010). Managing the cumulative impacts of coal mining on regional communities and environments in Australia. Impact Assessment and Project Appraisal, 28(4), 299-312.- Gillette, D. A., Niemeyer, T. C., & Helm, P. J. (2001). Supply‐limited horizontal sand drift at an ephemerally crusted, unvegetated saline playa. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, 106(D16), 18085-18098.- Gillette, D. A., Adams, J., Muhs, D., & Kihl, R. (1982). Threshold friction velocities and rupture moduli for crusted desert soils for the input of soil particles into the air. Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans, 87(C11), 9003-9015.- Houser, C. A. & Nickling, W. G. (2001). The factors influencing the abrasion efficiency of saltating grains on a clay-crusted playa. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms: The Journal of the British Geomorphological Research Group, 26(5), 491-505.- King, J., Etyemezian, V., Sweeney, M., Buck, B. J., & Nikolich, G. (2011). Dust emission variability at the Salton Sea, California, USA. Aeolian Research, 3(1), 67-79.- Kracek, F. C. (1928). In: Washburn, E. W. (Ed.), International Critical Tables 3. McGraw Hill, New York.- Kocurek, G. & Lancaster, N. (1999). Aeolian system sediment state: theory and Mojave Desert Kelso dune field example. Sedimentology, 46(3), 505-515.- Lakes Environmental WRPLOT. Available at: https://www.weblakes.com/products/wrplot/index.html- Lambe, T. W., Michaels, A. S., & Moh, Z. C. (1960). Improvement of soil-cement with alkali metal compounds & discussion. Highway Research Board Bulletin, (241).- Langbein, W. B. (1961). Salinity and hydrology of closed lakes: A study of the long-term balance between input and loss of salts in closed lakes (Vol. 412). US Government Print. Office.- Langston, G. & Neuman, C. M. (2005). An experimental study on the susceptibility of crusted surfaces to wind erosion: a comparison of the strength properties of biotic and salt crusts. Geomorphology, 72(1-4), 40-53.- Li, S., Li, C., & Fu, X. (2021). Characteristics of soil salt crust formed by mixing calcium chloride with sodium sulfate and the possibility of inhibiting wind-sand flow. Scientific Reports, 11(1), 1-11.- Lippmann, M. & Thurston, G. D. (1996). Sulfate concentrations as an indicator of ambient particulate matter air pollution for health risk evaluations. Journal of exposure analysis and environmental epidemiology, 6(2), 123-146.- Nachshon, U., Shahraeeni, E., Or, D., Dragila, M., & Weisbrod, N. (2011). Infrared thermography of evaporative fluxes and dynamics of salt deposition on heterogeneous porous surfaces. Water Resources Research, 47(12).- Neave, M. & Rayburg, S. (2007). A field investigation into the effects of progressive rainfall-induced soil seal and crust development on runoff and erosion rates: The impact of surface cover. Geomorphology, 87(4), 378-390.- Nicol, T. (2006). WA's mining boom: where does it leave the environment? Ecos, 2006(133), 12-13.- Nield, J. M., Bryant, R. G., Wiggs, G. F., King, J., Thomas, D. S., Eckardt, F. D., & Washington, R. (2015). The dynamism of salt crust patterns on playas. Geology, 43(1), 31-34.- Nield, J. M., Neuman, C. M., O’Brien, P., Bryant, R. G., & Wiggs, G. F. (2016). Evaporative sodium salt crust development and its wind tunnel derived transport dynamics under variable climatic conditions. Aeolian Research, 23, 51-62.- Nield, J. M., Wiggs, G. F., King, J., Bryant, R. G., Eckardt, F. D., Thomas, D. S., & Washington, R. (2016). Climate–surface–pore‐water interactions on a salt crusted playa: implications for crust pattern and surface roughness development measured using terrestrial laser scanning. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, 41(6), 738-753.- Mbaya, R. P. (2013). Land degradation due to mining: the gunda scenario. International Journal of Geography and Geology, 2(12), 144-158.- Mehra, S. R., Chadda, L. R., & Kapur, R. N. (1955). ROLE OF DETRIMENTAL SALTS IN SOIL STABILIZATION WITH AND WITHOUT CEMENT. 1.--THE EFFECT OF SODIUM SULPHATE. Indian Concrete Journal, 33(7).- Mudd, G. M. (2010). The environmental sustainability of mining in Australia: key mega-trends and looming constraints. Resources Policy, 35(2), 98-115.- Muhs, D. R., Reynolds, R. L., Been, J., & Skipp, G. (2003). Eolian sand transport pathways in the southwestern United States: importance of the Colorado River and local sources. Quaternary International, 104(1), 3-18.- O'Brien, P. & Neuman, C. M. (2012). A wind tunnel study of particle kinematics during crust rupture and erosion. Geomorphology, 173, 149-160.- Pearson, K. E. & Bauder, J. W. (2006). The basics of salinity and sodicity effects on soil physical properties. MSU Extension Water Quality Program.- Reynolds, R. L., Yount, J. C., Reheis, M., Goldstein, H., Chavez, P., Fulton, R., & Forester, R. M. (2007). Dust emission from wet and dry playas in the Mojave Desert, USA. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, 32(12), 1811-1827.- Rice, M. A., & McEwan, I. K. (2001). Crust strength: a wind tunnel study of the effect of impact by saltating particles on cohesive soil surfaces. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms: The Journal of the British Geomorphological Research Group, 26(7), 721-733.- Ripley, E. A., Redmann, R. E., & Maxwell, J. (1978). Environmental impact of mining in Canada.- Roche, C., & Mudd, G. (2014). An overview of mining and the environment in Western Australia. Resource Curse or Cure? 179-194.- Rosen, M. R. (1994). The importance of groundwater in playas: A review of playa classifications and Paleoclimate and basin evolution of playa systems. 289, 1.- Schwikowski, M., Doscher, A., Gaggeler, H. W., & Schotterer, U. (1999). Anthropogenic versus natural sources of atmospheric sulphate from an Alpine ice core. Tellus B: Chemical and Physical Meteorology, 51(5), 938-951.- Sherwood, P. T. (1962). Effect of sulfates on cement-and lime-stabilized soils. Highway Research Board Bulletin, (353).- Simon-Coincon, R., Spain, A. V., & Milnes, A. R. (2003). Landform processes in the post coal-mining Landscape, Bowen Basin, Australia. A geomorphological approach. International Journal of Surface Mining, Reclamation and Environment, 17(1), 20-50.- Steiger, M. & Asmussen, S. (2008). Crystallization of sodium sulfate phases in porous materials: the phase diagram Na2SO4–H2O and the generation of stress. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 72(17), 4291-4306.- Sweeney, M. R., McDonald, E. V., & Etyemezian, V. (2011). Quantifying dust emissions from desert landforms, eastern Mojave Desert, USA. Geomorphology, 135(1-2), 21-34.- Thaulow, N. & Sahu, S. (2004). Mechanism of concrete deterioration due to salt crystallization. Materials Characterization, 53(2-4), 123-127.- Tsui, N., Flatt, R. J., & Scherer, G. W. (2003). Crystallization damage by sodium sulfate. Journal of cultural heritage, 4(2), 109-115.- Udoekanem, N. B., Adoga, D. O., & Onwumere, V. O. (2014). Land ownership in Nigeria: Historical development, current issues and future expectations. Journal of environment and Earth science, 4(21), 182-189.- Washington, R., Todd, M. C., Lizcano, G., Tegen, I., Flamant, C., Koren, I., & Goudie, A. S. (2006). Links between topography, wind, deflation, lakes and dust: The case of the Bodele Depression, Chad. Geophysical Research Letters, 33(9).- Webb, N. P. & Strong, C. L. (2011). Soil erodibility dynamics and its representation for wind erosion and dust emission models. Aeolian Research, 3(2), 165-179.- Yocom, J. E. (1958). The deterioration of materials in polluted atmospheres. Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association, 8(3), 203-208.- Zobeck, T. M. (1991). Abrasion of crusted soils: Influence of abrader flux and soil properties. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 55(4), 1091-1097.
خلاصه ماشینی:Morphology of surfaces of sodium sulfate extraction (Source: Authors, 2020) يافته هاي پژوهش و تجزيه و تحليل آنها - شرايط اقليمي براساس نتايج حاصل ازآمار ايستگاه سينوپتيک گرمسار، ميانگين بارش سـالانه در دورة آمـاري ٢٠سـاله (١٣٧٥ تـا ١٣٩٥)، ١١٢ ميلي متر بوده که حداقل بارش ، ٠/٩٦ ميليمتر به ماه شهريور و حداکثر بارش ، ٢٣/٣ ميليمتر به ماه اسفند مربوط است . granulometry results (percentage of particles on each sieve) (Source: Research findings, 2020) شمارة ويژگي عمق اندازة ذرات (μ) جمع نقاط >63 63-125 125-250 250-500 500-1000 1000-2000 ≤2000 ١ شاهد سطحي ٧١/٨ ٢/٥ ٦/٨ ٩/٦ ٥/٦ ٢/١ ١/٦ ١٠٠ ٢ شاهد سطحي ٦٠/٧ ٤/٥ ٧/٧ ٩/٨ ٩/٤ ٥/٤ ٢/٥ ١٠٠ ٣ لايۀ سطحي کنار ٤٤/١ ٨/٦ ١١/٩ ١٢/٤ ٩/٩ ٧/٥ ٥/٦ ١٠٠ زده شده لايۀ مياني ٠/٥ ٠/٣ ١/٩ ١٨/٩ ٤١/٩ ٢٦/٣ ١٠/٢ ١٠٠ لايۀ تحتاني ٢/١ ١/١ ٣/٨ ١٣/٩ ٢٥/٩ ٢٢/٩ ٣٠/٣ ١٠٠ ٤ لايۀ سطحي کنار ٤٤/٥ ٦/٥ ١٠/٩ ١٣/٧ ١٣/٣ ٧/٨ ٣/٣ ١٠٠ زده شده لايۀ مياني ٣/٣ ٦/٣ ١٣/٦ ٢٤/٧ ٢٤/٩ ١٤/٢ ١٣/٠ ١٠٠ لايۀ تحتاني ١/٢ ١/٣ ٤/٩ ١٩/١ ٣٠/١ ٢٢/٩ ٢٠/٦ ١٠٠ همان گونه که جدول ١ نشان مي دهد، دانه بندي ذرات براي ذرات کمتـر از ٢٠٠٠ ميکـرون صـورت گرفتـه اسـت کـه براساس مراجع علمي شامل محدودة ذرات مورد فرسايش بادي هستند.
- دریافت فایل ارجاع :
- (پژوهیار, , , )
تحتاج دخول لعرض محتوى المقالة. إذا لم تكن عضوًا ، فتابع من الجزء الاشتراک.
إن كنت لا تقدر علی شراء الاشتراك عبرPayPal أو بطاقة VISA، الرجاء ارسال رقم هاتفك المحمول إلی مدير الموقع عبر
webmaster@noormags.com
.
You need Sign in to view the content of the article. If you are not a member, proceed from part Sign up.
If you fail to purchase subscription via PayPal or VISA Card, please send your mobile number to the Website Administrator via
webmaster@noormags.com
.